A.D. Madden
JFS, Learning Resources Centre, 175 Camden Road, London NW1 9HD
admadden@hotmail.com
One difficulty faced by students on many information management courses is the lack
of any attempt to teach concepts of information. Therefore, if a core module does not
fit in with a student’s existing concept of information, it can make it hard for the student
to recognise the relevance of that module. This paper addresses that problem by
summarising concepts of information, and by presenting a simple model that attempts
to unite the various concepts listed. The model is based on the idea that the meaning
in a message depends on the context in which the message originated (the authorial
context), and the context in which it is interpreted (the readership context).
Characteristics of authors, readers and messages are discussed. The impact of the
‘knowledge’ of ‘information’ users, and of their community, is considered. Implications
of the model are discussed. A definition of information is suggested, which attempts to
encapsulate the nature of information implied by the model.
rather to discuss concepts: the difference
being, according to Belkin [4, p. 58], a definition
‘says what the phenomenon defined is,
whereas a concept is a way of looking at or
interpreting the phenomenon’.
In their recent paper, McCreadie and
Rice [5] review concepts of information
proposed over the last fifty years. A summary
of the concepts they consider is given
below.
Information as a representation of
knowledge
Information is stored knowledge.
Traditionally the storage medium has been books, but increasingly electronic media are becoming important.
lnformation as data in the environment
Information can be obtained from a range of environmental stimuli and phenomena; not all of which are intended to ‘convey’ a message, but which can be informative when appropriately interpreted.
Information as part of the communication process
Meanings are in people rather than in words or data. Timing and social factors
play a significant role in the processing and
interpretation of information.
Information as a resource or commodity
Information is transmitted in a message from sender to receiver. The receiver
interprets the message as intended by the sender. There may be added value as the information is disseminated or exchanged.
Information in context
The model presented below rests on the assumption that information cannot be evaluated without an awareness of the context in which it is being interpreted. This assumption leads to a model comprising three components.
1. Readership context
The context in which a message is received and interpreted. The reader is any system
which derives (or attempts to derive) information from a message. A system may be a mechanism, an organism, a community, or an organisation.
2. Authorial context
The context in which the message originates.
The author is any system that transmits (intentionally or otherwise) a message from which a reader can derive information.
3. Message
The means by which information is transmitted.
It may be written, spoken, facial expression, phenomenal, etc.
These components are described more fully below.
Information as data in the environment: reading the signs
Many information scientists accept that information is a property of all living organisms
[6, 7].
It is not unreasonable, therefore, to illustrate the prime importance of context with an example from biology. It has long been recognised by zoologists that there is an association between brightly coloured markings on an animal and unpalatability or toxicity
[8].
Predators learn to associate such markings with unpleasant experiences and so are less inclined to attack similarly marked creatures in future. So a potential predator, seeing the markings of a brightly coloured male butterfly, will derive information about the insect’s suitability as a food source.
A female butterfly of the same species will derive no such information. She might, however,
find the markings useful in assessing the male’s quality as a mate. Clearly, therefore, both the predator and the female butterfly
derive information from the markings, but the message of the markings depends on the context in which it is read.
The importance of context in the interpretation of information has long been recognized.
The above example, however, indicates that, unless it is assumed that butterflies and birds have knowledge, knowledge is not necessary for a signal to be informative.
Information as part of the
communication process: the authorial and readership contexts Messages exchanged between humans frequently differ from those discussed in the
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